Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptors In The Pig Urinary Bladder Biology Essay

Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptors In The Pig Urinary Bladder Biology Essay Background and purpose. This investigation sought to identify the principal muscarinic receptor subtype associated with contraction of the pig bladder. Additionally, comparisons of muscarinic receptor expression in the pig bladder and caudate nucleus were conducted. Experimental approach. Contractility of isolated strips of pig bladder was assessed using isotonic tension recordings in an organ bath. Radioligand binding to particulate preparations from pig caudate nucleus and bladder detrusor was assessed using [3H]-quinuclidinylbenzilate. Key results. The results obtained from the contractile response experiment showed that the best antagonists for pig bladder contractions were methoctramine, pirnezepine and oxybutynin, this was according to the pEC50 data. These results led to the identification of the presence of M1 and M3 receptor subtypes in the bladder. Whereas M1 and M2 receptor subtypes were found to occur in the brain. Pirenzepine exhibited the smallest Rmax value, and was therefore the most successful antagonist. Whereas 4-DAMP had the largest Rmax value, identifying this as the worst antagonist. Conclusions and Implications. It is clear that M3 muscarinic receptors are found in the bladder, but are absent in the brain. This is made more certain as 4-DAMP showed fairly low affinity for muscarinic receptors in the bladder, but its affinity was higher than that recorded in the brain which is known to contain a low amount of M3 receptors. 4-DAMP also has the highest affinity recorded in the brain, due to binding at the M1 muscarinic receptor. Introduction There are five distinct types of muscarinic receptors (M1,M2,M3,M4,M5), all of which belong to the same family of G-protein-coupled receptors. M1 receptors are found mainly in the cortex and hippocampus of the brain, but also on the CNS and peripheral neurons. These receptors are excitatory, this excitation is produced by a decrease in potassium ions which causes membrane depolarization. M2 receptors exert inhibitory effects; they are present in the heart and so are of little importance in this experiment. M3 receptors reside in smooth muscle. These receptors are excitatory and produce vasodilatation and bronchodilatation, via an increase in intracellular calcium levels. As this experiment includes analysis on the effects of muscarinic antagonists on muscarinic receptors in the brain and bladder, it is mainly the M1 and M3 receptors which are being concentrated on. The aim of the experiment was to add a range of antagonists pig bladder tissue, and then recording the effect each had on the tissues contraction. The five antagonists used in the experiment were atropine, pirenzepine, methoctramine, 4-DAMP and oxybutynin. Each of the antagonists used are able to bind to muscarinic receptors, but they bind to different subtypes as they have differing affinities. Atropine is a non-selective antagonist, which acts via competitive inhibition of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. It is a naturally occurring alkaloid which can be found in solanaceous plants, for example the deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna). Atropine causes anti-cholinergic effects such as mydriasis, salivary inhibition, tachycardia, inhibition of GI motility and smooth muscle relaxation. It can be used clinically to treat anticholinesterase poisoning, bradycardia and GI hypermotility. Pirenzepine is a muscarinic receptor antagonist, and is slightly selective for the M1 sub-type. It is used clinically for the treatment of peptic ulcers, whereby it inhibits gastric acid secretion. Methoctramine is a slightly M2 selective antagonist. It has also been found to show selectivity for cardiac M2 muscarinic receptors, but to have low affinity for both vascular M2 and ganglionic M1 receptors. 4-DAMP is a slightly M3 selective antagonist, although it has only low affinity. There is no clinical use for 4-DAMP, it is mainly used in experiments for the analysis of muscarinic receptors. Oxybutynin is a non-selective muscarinic antagonist. It is used clinically to decrease muscle spasms of the bladder in patients suffering from frequent urination or urge incontinence. During the contractile experiment these antagonists will be used to determine which of the muscarinic receptors are present in the bladder, and which occur in the greatest amount. The same antagonists will then be used in the radioligand experiment, to compare each of their effects on brain tissue. Once both experiments are performed, the results can be used to compare the presence of muscarinic effects in the bladder and brain tissue. Materials and Methods Contractile response studies Strips of urinary detrusor were stored overnight at 4  °C in Krebs Ringer solution [composition (mM): NaCl (118); KCl (4.9), MgCl2 (1.2); KH2PO4 (1.2); D-glucose (12); NaHCO3 (25); CaCl2 (1.3); gassed with O2:CO2 (95:5)], as previously described (Lot and Wilson, 1994). On the morning of the experiment, tissue was removed from the refrigerator and allowed to equilibrate to room temperature. Thereafter, strips were mounted in an organ bath at 37  °C in Krebs Ringer solution. Contractility was monitored using isotonic transducers connected to CED 1502 amplifiers and recorded on a personal computer running Spike 2 software (CED, Cambs, UK). A steady baseline was then achieved for 20 minutes before 1ml 3M KCl was added to 50ml of Krebs solution (in water bath), to achieve a final concentration of 60mM. The tissue was then washed out three times once a maximal response was recorded, and this was then left for a further 20 minutes until a steady baseline was achieved once again. 10 dilutions containing varying concentrations of carbachol were then prepared in LP4 tubes, using 3-fold dilutions. A cumulative-concentration curve was created by adding the preparation containing the lowest concentration of carbachol to the organ bath first. After waiting for 7 minutes, the next preparation with a higher concentration was added. This process was repeated without washing out the tissue, until there was no further increase in tissue tone recorded. Once this part of the experiment was completed, the tissue was washed out 3 times with warm Krebs solution. This was followed by the addition of the putative antagonist and the tissue was left for 60 minutes. After achieving a steady baseline, a cumulative-concentration curve was created by carrying out the same process with increasing concentrations of carbachol as before; but this time in the presence of the putative antagonist. The results were printed off once the process was completed. Radioligand binding studies Radioligand binding to total particulate preparations from the pig was conducted essentially as previously described (Alexander et al., 1994). Briefly, tissue was homogenised in 10-30 volumes of 0.1 M phosphate buffer (pH 7.5) using an Ultra-Turrax homogeniser. After centrifugation at 30 000 g for 15 minutes at 4 °C, the supernatant layer was discarded. This homogenisation/centrifugation cycle was repeated twice more and the resulting pellet was re-suspended in 10 volumes. After storage at -20  °C, thawed tissue was incubated in a total volume of 500  µL 0.1 M phosphate buffer (pH 7.5), containing 0.25 nM [3H]-QNB for 30 minutes at 37  °C. Rapid filtration with repeated washing allowed isolation of bound radioligand, which was then estimated using liquid scintillation counting. A dilution curve was prepared using 10-fold dilutions once the drug was provided, this contained the highest concentration. 32 LP4 tubes were labelled 1-32 and these were placed in test tube racks. 50  µl aliquots of different concentrations of drug were then added to tubes 5-28, with each being made up to 500  µl by adding 450  µl of buffer. 50  µl of buffer was added to tubes 1-4, these acted as a control whilst atropine was added to the remained tubes 29-32. 400  µl of the radioligand was added to each of the tubes, with 50  µl of particulate preparation being added to the tubes in groups of 10 at 12 minute intervals. Once this process was completed, the tubes were incubated in a water bath at 37 °C for 30 minutes. The Whatman GF/B filters were placed in the 10-place manifold and were wet using the buffer solution. Ten of the tubes were then removed from the water bath, and 3ml of ice-cold buffer was added to each of them. They were filtered immediately after this process. Once two additions of 3ml of ice-cold buffer had taken place on each filter paper, they were washed. This was repeated for each of the LP4 tubes, once incubation in the water bath was halted on their removal. The filter papers were then placed into labelled scintillation vials, they were then analysed. Data analysis and statistical procedures There are equations which can be used to analyse the data collected in the experiment, once the information has been put into a concentration curve graph. The first equation used is the Gaddum equation: pKi = log (CR 1) log [Ant] In order to make use of this equation it is neccessary to work out the EC50, which is the effective concentration of drug required to give 50% of the maximum response. This EC50 value can be obtained from the concentration curve, as it is at 50% of the maximum response on the graph. The results collected from the graphs were Molar, these can be converted to  µM by multiplying the values by 106. These values can now be used to produce a concentration ratio, indicating the EC50 response with and without the presence of the antagonist. Graph 1 shows bladder tissue contractile responses to histamine in the presence of different concentrations of promethazine. The EC50 values recorded for histamine and promethazine were -6.5 and -5 respectively. By converting these Molar values to  µM by using the technique stated above, histamine 0.316  µM and promethazine 3.16  µM can be inputted into the Gaddum equation. The pKi value which is calculated in this equation is an indication of potency of the antagonist used, and a high pKi indicates a high affinity for the receptor. The pKi in this case was -8.5. As the radioligand was being carried out, calculations were made in order to work out the Kd and Bmax. The equation used in the radioligand binding experiment was the Cheng-Prusoff equation: IC50/Ki = 1 + [A]/Kd To work out the pKi, the same process as the contractile response experiment is used. Then the pIC50, the concentration of the antagonist which displaces 50% of the ligand, can be calculated. It is then necessary to work out the IC50 value to be used in the Cheng-Prusoff equation, this is achieved by -log of the pIC50 value. Finally, -log of the Ki obtained from the equation gives a pKi value of 8.2. Drugs, chemicals, reagents and other materials Porcine material (from pigs of the modern Hybrid white strain, either sex, approximately 50-70 kg) was obtained from an abattoir and transported rapidly to the laboratory on ice. [3H]-QNB (specific activity 1591 GBq mmole-1) was obtained from Amersham Pharmacia Biotech (Herts, UK), while muscarinic receptor ligands were all obtained from Sigma (Dorset, UK). All drug and molecular target nomenclature conforms to the British Journal of Pharmacologys Guide to Receptors and Channels (Alexander et al., 2008). Results Table 1. Contractile response results: Drug pEC50 Rmax Concentration Ratio pKi Atropine 4.5 131 20.9 9.1 Pirenzepine 4.3 109 42.6 7.4 Methoctramine 4.3 50.2 7.1 4-DAMP 4.6 139 37.9 9.2 Oxybutynin 4.3 210.5 8.1 Water 4.7 116 5.0 Table 1 shows the results obtained from the contractile response experiment, whereby the pig bladder tissue was exposed to five antagonists and the contractility of the tissue was measured. Table 2. Radioligand binding results: Brain Bladder Drug pKi SEM pKi SEM Atropine 9.8 0.1 9.8 0.1 Pirenzepine 7.7 0.2 8.0 0.6 Methoctramine 8.0 0.0 7.7 0.1 4-DAMP 9.2 0.0 8.4 0.1 Oxybutynin 7.4 0.0 7.8 0.0 Carbachol 4.8 0.1 4.3 0.0 Table 2 shows the results obtained from the radioligand experiment, which identified the different muscarinic receptors found in the brain and bladder tissue. Discussion and conclusions The conclusions that can be made from the results are that the main types of muscarinic receptor involved in the contraction of the bladder are the M1 and M3 receptor. Whereas, M1 and M2 muscarinic receptor subtypes occur in the brain. Therefore, an ideal drug for therapeutic treatment of urge incontinence and bladder dysfunction would be M3 selective. This would not have any adverse effects in the brain, as M3 receptors are not present in this part of the body. Bladder contractions occur due to activation of muscarinic receptors leading to an increase in intracellular calcium, which causes contraction of the smooth muscle. The results collected in the contractile response experiment were due to antagonism of M1 and M3 receptor subtypes. 4-DAMP recorded a pKi value of 9.2, a value which corresponded with the M3 subtype and was the highest of all the antagonists. This antagonist is M3 selective but also has affinity for the M1 muscarinic receptor; this may have caused its high pKi value to be due to binding at this muscarinic receptor subtype. Atropine recorded the second highest pKi, 9.1 .This was to be expected as it is a non-selective antagonist, with high affinity for each of the muscarinic receptor subtypes able to cause contraction of the bladder tissue. Oxybutynin recorded the third highest pKi value, 8.1. Oxybutynin has a slightly higher affinity for the M3 muscarinic receptor, therefore the pKi value is due to binding at this receptor subtype. Pirenzepine, being an M1 selective antagonist, would be expected to have a similarly high pKi to 4-DAMP. This was not the case as pirenzepine only recorded a pKi of 7.4, a value expected to be obtained from M3 selective antagonists. Methoctramine recorded a pKi value of 7.1, the lowest of all the antagonists. Although it is an M2 selective antagonist, the pKi value leads to the conclusion that contractile response is due to the presence of M1 or M3 receptors. The results obtained in the radioligand experiment revealed that mostly M1 and M2 muscarinic receptors occur in the brain. Methoctramine has low affinity at the M1 receptor, even so, the results recorded in the experiment showed the antagonist to have high affinity. The pKi range of the M2 receptor subtype for methoctramine is 7.8-8.3. Therefore, the recorded pKi value of 8.0 suggests the presence of M2 receptor subtypes in the brain. The pKi of 8.0 is quite far from the pKi range of methoctramine for the M3 receptor subtype, leading to the conclusion that there are a small number of M3 receptors in the brain. Atropine, perenzepine, 4-DAMP and oxybutynin antagonists are able to act at the M1 muscarinic receptor and each of these antagonists possess similar affinities for the receptor. Atropine (pKi 9.8) and oxybutynin (pKi 7.4) are both non-selective antagonists, so as in the contractile response will have fairly high affinities for any of the muscarinic receptor subtypes present in the brain. Perenzepine recorded a pKi value of 7.7; this failed to fall into any of the pKi ranges expected for the muscarinic receptors. The value was closest to the M1 subtype range (7.8-8.5). The SEM recorded was the highest of all the antagonists (0.2) concluding that some of the results may have been anomalous, with most of the pKi values falling within the M1 range. The Pki range of pirenzepine for the M3 receptor subtype is 6.7-7.1. The pKi recorded, much like that of methoctramine, was quite far from the M3 range. 4-DAMP recorded a high pKi of 9.2. This pKi value fell into the ranges for both the M1 and M3 muscarinic receptors, showing high affinity of the antagonist for both subtypes. In this experiment the pKi value recorded was with respect to the M1 receptor, not the M3 subtype. The non-selective muscarinic antagonist oxybutynin is the principle drug used to treat urge incontinence. This antagonistic drug possesses anticholinergic and antispasmolytic properties, which together act on the bladder to inhibit micturition. However, there are significant adverse effects associated with this choice of therapeutic treatment; such as dry mouth, constipation and blurred vision. These side effects highlight the non-selectivity of oxybutynin as each occurs due to antagonism at the M1 receptor. The radioligand binding experimental results show that oxybutynin has a pKi of 7.8 in the bladder, which is only slightly higher than the pKi of 7.4 recorded in the brain. These pKi values indicate that oxybutynin is slightly more selective towards the M3 receptor subtype present in the bladder. However, it is evident that the antagonist also has significant affinity towards the M1 and M2 receptor subtypes which are present in the brain. There were a few limitations encountered in both parts of the experiment. The contractile response experiment was carried out for a fairly short amount of time, more reliable results could be obtained by increasing the amount of time that the experiment is undertaken. As not all of the tissues used in the experiment were of the same source or size, the results obtained were inconsistent the responses recorded were of varying degrees. By ensuring every piece of tissue is the same size, more accurate and reliable could be obtained. Human error when collecting and interpreting the data in the experiment could have caused considerable variations in the results recorded. During the radioligand binding experiment complications arose due to contamination, with various external factors such as temperature and buffer strength affecting the results.

Driving While Using Cell Phones

Abstract of Cell phone and drivers research paper This report assesses the risks and benefits associated with cellular phone use while driving. The interest of policymakers in this issue has been heightened by the recent decisions of selected foreign countries and several U. S localities to restrict or prohibit the use of cellular phones while driving. The weight of the scientific evidence to date suggests that use of a cellular phone while driving does create safety risks for the driver and his passengers as well as other road users.The magnitude of these risks is uncertain but appears to be relatively low in probability compared to other risk in daily life. It is not clear whether hands-free cellular phone designs are significantly safer than hand-held designs, since it may be that conversation rather than dialing or handling is responsible for most of the attributable risk due to cellular phone use while driving. The benefits of using this communication device while driving appear to be important.They include benefits to the users, households, social networks, businesses, and communities. Many of these benefits, which include public health and safety considerations, have not yet been recognized or quantified. Simple suggestions that drivers can â€Å"pull over† on the side of the road to make calls from cellular phones are unrealistic and, in certain situations, potentially dangerous. It is not know which of the benefits of cellular phone use would be foregone under various regulatory scenarios.Cellular phone use while driving should be a concern of motorists and policymakers. We conclude that although there is evidence that using a cellular phone while driving poses risks to both the driver and others, it may be premature to enact substantial restrictions at this time. Indecision about whether cellular phone use while driving should be regulated is reasonable due to the limited knowledge of the relative magnitude of risks and benefits.In light of thi s uncertainty, government and industry should endeavor to improve the database for the purpose of informing future decisions of motorists and policymakers. In the interim, industry and government should encourage, through vigorous public education programs, more selective and prudent use of cellular phones while driving in order to enhance transport safety.

When to Use Roman Numerals Instead of Numbers

Roman numerals have been around for a long time. In fact, as the name suggests, Roman numerals started in ancient Rome, between 900 and 800 B.C. They originated as a set of seven basic symbols for numbers. As time and language progressed, those markings transformed into the letters we use today. While it may seem strange to use Roman numerals when numbers can be used, knowing how to use them can come in handy. Roman Numerals in Everyday Life Roman numerals are all around us and youve almost certainly seen and used them, even without realizing it. Once you familiarize yourself  with the letters and their usage, youll be surprised at how often they come up. Below are several places that Roman numerals are often found: Roman numerals are often used in books, often to number the chapters.Pages in appendices or introductions are also numbered with Roman numerals.In plays, they separate acts into sections.Roman numerals can be seen on fancy clocks and watches.  Annual sporting events, like the Summer and Winter Olympics and the Super Bowl, also mark the passage of years by using Roman numerals.  Many generations have a family name that has been passed down and includes a Roman numeral to signify the family member. For example, if a mans name is Paul Jones and his father and grandfather were also named Paul, that would make him Paul Jones III. Royal families also use this system.   How Roman Numerals Are Made To write Roman numerals, we use seven letters of the alphabet. The letters, which are always capitalized, are I, V, X, L,  C, D, and M. The table below illustrates the value for each of these numerals. Roman Numeral Symbols I one V five X ten L fifty C one hundred D five hundred M one thousand Roman numerals are arranged and combined in a specific order to represent numbers. Numerals (their values) are added together when written in groups, so XX 20 (because 1010 20). However, one cannot put more than three of the same numerals together. In other words, one can write III for three, but cant use IIII. Instead,  four  is indicated with IV. If a letter with a smaller value is placed before a letter with a larger value, one subtracts the smaller from the larger. For example, IX 9 because  one  subtracts 1 from 10. It works the same way if a smaller number comes after a larger number, only one adds to it. For instance, XI 11 because X 10 and I 1, and 10111. 50 Roman Numerals The following list of 50 Roman numerals will help you learn how they are created. Numerals 1 to 10:1 I2 II3 III4 IV5 V6 VI7 VII8 VIII9 IX10 XNumerals 11 to 20:11 XI12 XII13 XIII14 XIV15 XV16 XVI17 XVII18 XVIII19 XIX20 XXNumerals 30 to 50:30 XXX40 XL50 L How to Memorize Roman Numerals Sometimes, using a different writing method can be tricky and you wont always remember which Roman numeral you need to use. As long as you understand the explanations above and recollect the simple overview in the table, with some practice, youll master the Roman numerals in no time. One additional method to anchor these different types of numbers in your memory is to use a mnemonic and put the letters into a more memorable sentence. For example: I Value Xylophones Like Cows Do Milk Or in reverse: My Dear Cat Loves Xtra Vitamins Intensely

White-Collar Crime - Glossary Definition

Definition: White-collar crime is a criminal act that arises from opportunities created by a person’s social position, especially their occupation. White-collar crime is significant sociologically because of the perception that white-collar criminals tend to be middle- and upper-middle-class and because of a class bias in the criminal justice system, their crimes are generally viewed as less serious and less deserving of punishment. Examples: Examples of white-collar crime include expense account padding, embezzlement, tax fraud, false advertising, and the use of insider trading in stock market trading.

Greatest Scientific Discoveries - 1647 Words

Antibiotics Antibiotics transformed medicine. The discovery of antibiotics began by accident. On the morning of September 3rd, 1928, Professor Alexander Fleming was having a clear up of his cluttered laboratory. Fleming was sorting through a number of glass plates which had previously been coated with staphyloccus bacteria as part of research Fleming was doing. One of the plates had mould on it. The mould was in the shape of a ring and the area around the ring seemed to be free of the bacteria staphyloccus. Further research on the mould found that it could kill other bacteria and that it could be given to small animals without any side-effects. However, within a year, Fleming had moved onto other medical issues and it was ten years later†¦show more content†¦They wanted to devise an inter-networking system (or internet) whereby different networks could ‘talk’ to one another. Arpanet devised TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol). This was a set of rules fo r communication between networks. The Internet became a network of networks. Only the military stayed outside of this for security reasons. In 1988, there were 50,000 computers attached to the Internet. By 1991, there were 1 million. However, it was difficult to access the information contained on the Internet as the system had little organisation. This problem was solved by Tim Berners-Lee, a British scientist studying at a research facility in Switzerland. He invented a method of organising information which he called the world-wide-web (www). His system linked documents from different sources and guided users to related information. The www was first used by the public in 1991 and it allowed the transfer of text, sound, images and video clips. Above all else, it was simple to use. In 1998, 130 million people were using the Internet and the figure continues to grow annually. The Jet Engine Sir Frank Whittles jet engine transformed travel. The jet engine has allowed millions of people now to do something that was barely thinkable just 70 years ago - crossing the Atlantic at speed. The Wright’s may have invented the first real aeroplane, but the credit for the invention of the jet engine goes to Sir Frank Whittle. In 1937 heShow MoreRelatedNeanderthals : The Greatest Of Scientific Discovery1607 Words   |  7 PagesNeanderthals, mankind’s assumed ancestral brute for the ages, were the pinnacle of scientific discovery since many of their redeeming qualities were highly underestimated. Originally classified in the species Homo as Homo neandethalensis after the first specimen was found in the Neanderthal Valley in Germany. Neanderthals roamed the lands of Western Europe from 250,000 years ago to about the time H. sapiens came of the scene in 39,000 years ago. 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Greek Life the Negative College Experience Free Essays

Rachael Susco Mr. Rose ENGL 1302. 13 6 November 2012 Greek Life: The Negative College Experience? Most people do not have the ability to think of college without thinking of some sort of Greek life organization. We will write a custom essay sample on Greek Life: the Negative College Experience or any similar topic only for you Order Now Whether that thought is negative or positive may vary, but it is rare to think of any time in a college of any sort without thinking of a fraternity or a sorority at all. This is to be expected because most of these groups have somewhat dominated their campuses for hundreds of years, or since their particular chapters were formed. Supporters of Greek life, especially of fraternities, argue that being involved in Greek life organizations encourages brotherhood, the development of leadership skills, and the participation in philanthropic organizations throughout the students’ collegiate career. The bonds of brotherhood within fraternities have proven to be some of the strongest bonds among young men across the country. When it comes to supporting each other, it appears that the young men of collegiate fraternities are masters in the field. Whatever problems are faced by one brother can easily be backed up or even repaired completely by another, and the massive amount of time that the members are required to spend with each other due to meetings or rituals or any other function for the particular fraternity does nothing but strengthen the bond that was already set by initiation into the group. It is rare among college campuses, especially at Sam Houston State University, to see a member of a fraternity walking alone or spending any amount of downtime doing anything but socializing with the other members of their organization. This type of bonding can most certainly be considered to be a very positive aspect of participating in a fraternity, especially when the ability build relationships and work together as members of a team is one of the main concepts behind the organizations in the first place. These organizations may seem harmless enough in the settings that are viewed by the public, but if a closer look is taken at specific time periods of brotherhood, especially pledgeship for the newest members of the fraternity, it is obvious that these groups are anything but innocuous. There have been many reports of underage binge drinking at the parties for all different fraternities and requirements of the pledges to consume extremely large and ultimately unsafe amounts of alcohol, all in the hopes of acceptance into the organization and done out of fear of rejection. For example, it has been observed for many years that the Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity at Sam Houston State University requires their pledges to finish an entire handle of Jagermeister liquor among themselves within a small window of time, and if they fail to do it properly, they are handed a new bottle and forced to start again. This activity is done on Bid Day, the very first day that the young men announce their desire to join the fraternity. Another example of this type of encouragement of binge drinking would be the two deaths of the pledges of completely different fraternities and two different college campuses during 1997. The first, Scott Krueger, an â€Å"18-year-old Massachusetts Institute of Technology freshman honors student† who died after a party that was thrown off-campus by the â€Å"Phi Gamma Delta fraternity† that Krueger was in the process of pledging (Scrivo 1). His blood alcohol level was a determined to be a â€Å". 1,† which is â€Å"more than five times the legal limit† (Scrivo 1). The second is Benjamin Wynne, a pledge of the â€Å"Sigma Alpha Epsilon† fraternity at Louisiana State University (Scrivo 1). His blood alcohol level after death was reported to be â€Å". 58,† a level that is â€Å"nearly six times the legal limit† (Scrivo 1) . This type of strict enforcement and fear of rejection by the pledges must be taken into account when discussing what constitutes â€Å"brotherhood. † The definition of the word itself is â€Å"the feeling of kinship with and closeness to a group of people or all people. One could easily question how the requirement of new members to binge drink to the point of alcohol poisoning or potentially even death equates what is described so often as â€Å"brotherhood. † Another aspect that must be taken into consideration when defining â€Å"brotherhood† is the racial profiling that has gone into choosing and accepting members into fraternities in the past and how it has translated into today. Many different fraternities were originally founded as specifically one race organizations, such as â€Å"Pi Kappa Alpha,† which was rimarily an â€Å"all-white fraternity† (Black, White 1). Now, there are laws set into place that prohibit â€Å"membership bias an d exclusion based upon race† in both United States educational institutions as well as in the â€Å"corresponding fraternities and sororities† of the institutions, but this brings up the question of whether or not the organizations would be any different in modern times than they were when originally founded (Black, White 1). Are these organizations only accepting racially different members because they are required to by law? This question is very difficult to answer, but is something to consider once again when determining whether or not the term â€Å"brotherhood† is used genuinely or if it should be replaced by something a little more truthful: forced acceptance. Focusing again on the Pi Kappa Alpha fraternity and their lack of true brotherhood, there was a reported case of a student member of the PKA fraternity at the University of Tennessee being sent to the hospital during the month of September, 2012, with a blood alcohol level â€Å"well over a . ,† induced by the alcohol ingesting practice called â€Å"butt chugging† (Jacobs 1). This practice is more formally known as an â€Å"alcohol enema† and is essentially when an individual ingests alcohol into his or her system through the rectum, where it is then directly absorbed in the intestines (Jacobs 1). By consuming mass amounts of alcohol in this manner, the effects of the liquor â€Å"come quickly and potently† a nd are extremely dangerous for the individual partaking in the practice (Jacobs 1). Also, when members of this particular fraternity are asked about their experiences in the organization so far, all of their answers are overwhelmingly positive and many of them wholeheartedly support the claim that there is absolutely no negative aspect that comes with being involved in a Greek organization. How can a situation so incredibly terrible for the members such as the one that occurred at the University of Tennessee be encourage among the members and still be seen as â€Å"positive† in any way? Anyone with any amount logic or concern for the young men who join these organizations must take situations like this one into account when deciding on whether or not these groups are a positive aspect of the collegiate experience. Although all fraternities across the country are run in different manners and have different sets of rules that, all of them have some sort of executive board or positions that are deemed the leaders of the organization. They tend to have jobs, such as running the meetings, managing the money for the fraternity, filling out necessary paperwork for every different type of function, or taking care of matters of law breaking within the fraternity. Holding this type of position is considered to be prestigious because it means that that particular member is an excellent example of leadership towards their peers, and by being voted into a position of executive power, these leadership qualities are refined by the work required of that position. Refining leadership qualities can be used later on in life in the setting of the adult work environment, which can ultimately lead to better paying jobs and a more impressive, well-respected position in life. Again, this is a nice enough concept, but not necessarily as true as it seems if examined in the actual fraternities. Personal interviews with the members of Tau Kappa Epsilon at Sam Houston State University have revealed that even though a member is elected into position by his peers, his position is not necessarily respected, especially if the elected member is young in both age and amount of years they have been involved in the organization. The amount of time that a member spends within the fraternity ultimately equals the amount of power he holds in comparison to his peers, and according to the members of the TKE fraternity, this type of power tends to overrule the executive position holders regardless of the title that they may hold. This type of thought process will not always be functional or acceptable out in the workforce of the country, and many times if executive position rulings are ignored, the result is a loss of a job or even jail time. If the development of leadership skills is supposed to be a positive aspect of Greek life, then the type of leadership qualities and the acceptance of them should be modified to reflect more real world attributes. Another positive feature of Greek life is that each organization has a particular philanthropy that they participate in and donate funds to every year. This annual participation with so many different organization is in fact one of the most positive aspects that all Greek life organizations have to offer, especially because of all the constructive repercussions that occur because of it. Not only do the fraternities and sororities donate to their particular philanthropic organizations unrelentingly, but they also raise awareness about the many different types of charity groups in the surrounding communities and in the world altogether among the other students of the universities. Each Greek life organization usually has a minimum time span, usually a week or a month, where they try to recruit the help of the students around the university in supporting their particular charity. By having a particular time span, such as â€Å"Movember† for the Delta Tau Delta fraternity which encompasses the whole month of November every year and encourages male students across campus to not shave their facial hair in order to raise awareness about testicular cancer, the organizations are able to plan events and different types of advertising in order to maximize the amount of awareness about their patronage. With all of these differing types of events for the philanthropic organizations, it truly helps to make such types of charitable work more approachable and even more exciting to an entirely new group of unknowing people, such as the non-Greek affiliated students on the campus. It would seem that fraternities and sororities helping out with charitable organizations would be somewhat difficult to undermine and find any negative aspect with, but it most certainly is not that difficult when you consider that most of the Greek life establishments are only participating with these charities because they are forced to by University rule. If the Greek groups were not required by their Universities to participate in at least one philanthropic event every year, it presents the question of whether or not these groups are participating with pure intentions, or if they are only doing it because they are forced to. Something that should also be taken into consideration when comparing the positive aspects against the negative ones is again whether these patronage events are done with purely wholesome intentions of helping out the less fortunate, or if these events are done simply to add on to their future resumes in the hopes of again increasing their potential for better job opportunities. On the surface, it appears that fraternities and Greek life organizations as a whole have many positive aspects, until further inspected and genuinely analyzed. When the majority of an organization’s positive features are required by law or chapter by-laws and the members willingly participating in such dangerous or negative activities, the question of how constructive the organization truly is comes into context and has the ability to destroy any positive reputation that the establishment had to offer in the first place. If the laws and by-laws monitoring and ruling the fraternities were made stronger, or if more people spoke out about all of the negative aspects of the organizations in a more public manner, then the opportunity for such harmful results to come out of such groups that play such a major role in the collegiate experience could be greatly reduced or eliminated overall. Works Cited Arriaga, Robert. Personal interview. 5 Nov. 2012. â€Å"Fraternity Not Allowed on Campus Next Fall Due to Hazing Activities. Houstonianonline. com. Independent Student Newspaper of Sam Houston State University, 3 May 2010. Web. 6 Dec. 2012. Huchting, Karie K. , et al. â€Å"Comparing Greek-affiliated students and student athletes: an examination of the behavior-intention link, reasons for drinking, and alcohol-related consequences. †Ã‚  Journal of Alcohol Drug Education  55. 3 (2011): 61+. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 6 Dec. 2012. Hughey, Matthew W. â€Å"Black, White, Greek †¦ li ke who? Howard University student perceptions of a white fraternity on campus. †Ã‚  Educational Foundations  20. 1-2 (2006): 9+. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 6 Dec. 2012. Jacobs, Don. â€Å"Charges Stemming from Butt-Chugging Night at UT Frat Heard in City Court. † Knoxville News Sentinel. Knoxville: Knoxville News Sentinel Co. , 2012. Knoxnews. com. Web. 6 Dec. 2012. Scrivo, Karen Lee. â€Å"How Colleges Have Responded to Teenage Drinking. †Ã‚  Teen Alcoholism. Ed. Laura K. Egendorf. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 2001. Contemporary Issues Companion. Rpt. from â€Å"Drinking on Campus. †Ã‚  CQ Researcher  (20 Mar. 1998). Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 6 Dec. 2012. Stevens, Ashlei N. â€Å"Greek Members Are More Likely to Binge Drink and Use Drugs. â€Å"Student Life. Detroit: Greenhaven Press, 2010. Opposing Viewpoints. Rpt. from â€Å"Report: Fraternity, Sorority Members More Likely to Drink, Use Drugs than Non-Greeks. †Ã‚  Spartanburg Herald-Journal  18 Feb. 2008: A1. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 6 Dec. 2012. How to cite Greek Life: the Negative College Experience, Papers

Flanner oconners a good man is hard to find Essay Example For Students

Flanner oconners a good man is hard to find Essay A Good Man is Hard to Find presents a masterful portrait of a woman who creates a self and a world through language. (Shenck 220) At least that is what Mary Jane Shenck thinks of the Flannery OConnor story. Several different people have several different views of this controversial and climatic work of OConnors. In this paper I will take a look at these different views of different situations and characters in this book. First we will take a look at grandmother. She is made to look like the saint in this story. Her, in contrast to the rest, is the good person, always looking out for the best of others. She is not going on vacation, she is going to visit her connections in Tennessee. While on the drive, to their destination, she sits and admires the scenery as the others are more interested in the funny papers or the sports section. She brings the cat along on the trip for the good of the cat. She didnt want the cat to accidently kill himself by turning on the gas on the stove or something. She is the Christ-like figure of this story, and this is more relevant at the end of the story when she confronts the Misfit. Just like in so many other OConnor stories the grandmother, the good character, is going to take the hardest fall. The Misfit appears many different ways in this story. His first appearance in the story he seems to be a scholar. Wearing his silver-rimmed glasses and a black hat. This description would also fit a description of a rabbi. This image comes just by looking at his head. His shirtless torso and blue jeans, which didnt quite fit right, and gun in hand, kind of veer us away from thinking of him as being a good man. Of course the limitations of his character dont stop at his appearance. He also is a record keeper. He writes down everything he does and signs it. This way he knows what he has done and what he hasnt. He tells the grandmother this before killing her. The reason for doing this, in the Misfits mind, is so that he can match up the crime with the punishment and see if they are right for each other. If they are not then you know that the system hasnt done their job correctly. He knows that his punishment is no mistake because he wrote down his actions. He respects the power of the words because they define what he does. The other identity mask that the Misfit puts on is the mask of the Lone Ranger. He, though, is not looked upon as a white Lone Ranger, but a black Lone Ranger. The mixture of good and evil inside of him is a meanness in whole. He feels that he has saved the grandmother by shooting her. He even turns to one of his two henchmen, Bobby Lee, and tells him something along the line of that she would have been a good woman if she would have had someone there to shoot her all the time. The only pleasure that the Misfit got out of killing grandmother is the meanness behind the action.. (Schaub 233) Now we take a look at the ending. The family had an accident on a back road, flipping their car. This occurred all because of grandmother. She told Bailey that the old plantation was along this way, and that the mansion had a secret panel in it. The kids went nuts to see this passage, and Bailey, the father, gave in and took them down this road to see it. The cat got uncomfortable from the whole situation and jumped on Baileys shoulder, causing the accident. .u5e2506541a15d52ed9374d0301e88816 , .u5e2506541a15d52ed9374d0301e88816 .postImageUrl , .u5e2506541a15d52ed9374d0301e88816 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u5e2506541a15d52ed9374d0301e88816 , .u5e2506541a15d52ed9374d0301e88816:hover , .u5e2506541a15d52ed9374d0301e88816:visited , .u5e2506541a15d52ed9374d0301e88816:active { border:0!important; } .u5e2506541a15d52ed9374d0301e88816 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u5e2506541a15d52ed9374d0301e88816 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u5e2506541a15d52ed9374d0301e88816:active , .u5e2506541a15d52ed9374d0301e88816:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u5e2506541a15d52ed9374d0301e88816 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u5e2506541a15d52ed9374d0301e88816 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u5e2506541a15d52ed9374d0301e88816 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u5e2506541a15d52ed9374d0301e88816 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u5e2506541a15d52ed9374d0301e88816:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u5e2506541a15d52ed9374d0301e88816 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u5e2506541a15d52ed9374d0301e88816 .u5e2506541a15d52ed9374d0301e88816-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u5e2506541a15d52ed9374d0301e88816:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: thanksgiving dinner Essay If grandmother would have left the cat at home, like Bailey wanted her to, or even had not made up this story of the secret panel, then this accident would not have happened. When the Misfit and his gang show up the Misfit has his two henchmen, Bobby Lee and Hiram, kill the family. First taking Bailey and John Wesley, and then the mother and daughter into the .